Abstract The global issue of inadequate access to water supply affects more than 850 million people, while over 2.5 billion individuals face limitations in accessing sanitation facilities (WHO and UNICEF, 2014). Recognizing the importance sufficient sterilizations, clearness and safe water Improved sanitation reduces health system costs and leads to fewer days lost at work or school, decreased queue times at shared sanitation facilities, and the elimination of open defecation. This study used by cross- sectional study this means the sample was selected from the target group, and information was obtained simultaneously at a particular point in time. The study result concluded that majority 86 (68.4%) of the respondents were male. The highest number of the respondents 94(75.2%) were aged 20– 25 years.  The majority 60(48%) of the respondents were single. The majority 117 (93.6%) of the respondents were university level of Education. According to the business respondents, the majority of the respondent’s 51 (40.8%) student. 108 respondents (86.4%) have the perceived level of knowledge to consider as appropriate for using Aqua Tap, while 17 respondents (13.6%) do not. Aqua Tap is one of the technologies in water treatment, and given that respondents need to choose from various technologies, high knowledge of Aqua Tap indicates good availability and awareness of this particular technology. Highest number of the respondents 104 (86%) said yes there is serious problems that can cause poor water sanitation. The specialists dove into and underscored angles, for example, research configuration, target populace, test size, inspecting procedures, research instruments, information assortment, information examination, legitimacy and dependability, moral contemplations, and test outline. This study was a cross-sectional review. This implies that the example was chosen from the objective gathering, and data was gotten all the while at a specific moment.

Abstract The increasing contamination of water bodies by heavy metals, particularly cadmium (Cd²⁺), poses a significant threat to environmental and public health due to its toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulate nature. This study investigates the potential of citric acid-modified chitosan, derived from oyster shells, as an eco-friendly and cost-effective adsorbent for the removal of cadmium ions from aqueous solutions. Chitosan was extracted through deproteination, demineralization, and deacetylation processes, followed by chemical modification using citric acid to enhance its adsorption properties. Characterization of the modified chitosan was conducted using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), UV–Visible Spectroscopy (UV–Vis), and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). FTIR analysis confirmed the successful transformation of oyster shell into chitosan, with the emergence of functional groups such as hydroxyl, carbonyl, and amine groups critical for metal ion binding. UV–Vis. spectroscopy revealed strong absorbance in the UV region and optical transparency in the visible range, indicating high purity and suitability for biomedical and environmental applications. Batch adsorption experiments were performed to evaluate the effects of initial cadmium concentration, contact time, and temperature. The results showed that maximum adsorption occurred at low concentrations, with equilibrium reached at 60 minutes and optimal performance at 40°C. Isotherm modeling revealed that the Freundlich model (R² = 0.8389) better described the adsorption behavior than the Langmuir model (R² = 0.0245), suggesting multilayer adsorption on a heterogeneous surface. Kinetic studies indicated that the pseudo-second-order model (R² = 0.9738) best fit the data, implying chemisorption as the dominant mechanism. Overall, the study demonstrates that citric acid-modified chitosan is a promising biosorbent for cadmium removal, offering a sustainable solution for wastewater treatment. Further optimization and real-world application studies are recommended to enhance its practical viability.

Abstract The high cost of chemical coagulants for water treatment makes most people in rural community to resort to readily available surface water which are usually of low quality exposing them to different water – borne diseases. It is in this light, this research was conducted to assess the effectiveness of a cheap enhanced natural coagulant prepared from Chrysophyllum albidium  seeds for the treatment of contaminated water sampled from River Getsi which serves as potable water for the society. The coagulant synthesized (both unmodified and modified Chrysophyllum albidium seed coagulant) were first characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), proximate, phytochemical screening ,  Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier transformed infrared spectrophotometry (FTIR), and Atomic Absorption spectrophotometry techniques. The efficiency of  the characterized coagulants were thereafter accessed using the conventional Jar test apparatus where the effects of the coagulants dosage (0.1-0.6 g/L), temperature (303 – 333 K), mixing speed (20 – 240 rpm) and pH (2 – 12) on the reduction of some of the contaminant in the River water were examined The results from the  FTIR analysis revealed the coagulants contain functional groups   like the  O–H stretch of alcohols and phenols,  N-H stretching of amino compounds  and the carboxyl, C=O  group  which have been reported in literature to be the preferred groups for coagulation – flocculation  processes. The XRD image patterns obtained indicated that the prepared coagulants do not have any impurities and are in pristine forms which might be responsible for the adsorption of pollutants onto the coagulant surface. The obtained SEM images indicated that the coagulants had porous, round and rough granular structures that can favour adsorption and bridging of colloidal particles thereby promoting the sedimentation of particles during water purification. Result from the jar test experiment indicated that both the unmodified (UCASC)   and modified (MCASC) coagulants reduced the amount of dissolved and suspended solids in the river water, as well as reduced the amount of chemical and biochemical oxygen needed. The performance of the coagulants in the removals of heavy metal from the river water followed the other As > Fe > Cr > Cu > Cd > Zn > Pb.  Maximum removal of 97. 86 % of total suspended solids (TSS), 94.68 %  of total dissolved solids (TDS), and 97.04 % of turbidity was achieved by  MCASC at optimum conditions (pH of 8, dosage of 0.4 g/L, solution temperature of 303 K, mixing speed of 210 rpm and settling time of 30 minutes). The better performance of MCASC when compared to UCASC (TSS = 97.82 %, TDS 93.80 % and Turbidity = 90.55 % )  is a sign that the microwave  treatment of the former during its modification  improved the powder’s ability to adsorb substances and collect contaminants. The study demonstrates that Chrysophyllum albidium seed, which are the waste of these fruits, could be helpful for the synthesis of cheap coagulants that can be used for water purification  .

Abstract Accelerated urbanization in developing countries has driven the expansion of informal settlements, often without access to essential infrastructure such as water supply, sewage treatment, and waste management. These deficiencies contribute to the spread of waterborne diseases and the degradation of urban ecosystems. Streams in these areas are frequently used as open sewers, intensifying environmental contamination and health risks. Addressing these challenges requires integrated public policies focused on land regularization, sanitation infrastructure, and environmental justice. In this context, microbial bioremediation emerges as a sustainable and low-cost alternative. The use of specific microorganisms capable of degrading organic and chemical pollutants offers several advantages: they can adapt to different environments, require minimal maintenance, and do not produce secondary pollution. These biological agents improve water quality, reduce pathogen loads, and support the ecological restoration of contaminated urban waterways. Their application in decentralized and community-level interventions makes them particularly suitable for areas with limited infrastructure. By combining conventional urban planning with microbial-based strategies, it is possible to promote healthier environments and enhance public health in vulnerable communities affected by unregulated urban growth. Within this context, the primary objective of this article was to collect data from a wide range of available studies on the subject to provide insights that could encourage the development of microbiological research to support public policies for environmental sanitation in slums and other communities where infrastructure installation is particularly challenging.

Abstract Access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene is critical for public health, particularly in regions facing infrastructural and environmental challenges. This cross-sectional study assessed the awareness and practices related to water sanitation and hygiene among 150 residents of Marka District, Somalia, between June 2023 and April 2024. A stratified random sampling method was employed, and data were collected using self-administered questionnaires and direct observations. Among 150 respondents in Marka District, Somalia, the majority were young adults aged 21–25 years (73.3%) and male (65.3%). Most participants were illiterate (64.0%), with only 36% having primary, secondary, or university-level education. Residential distribution showed 56.7% lived in host villages and 43.3% in IDP settlements. Employment varied, with 32% employed full-time, 13.3% part-time, 28% students, and 26.7% unemployed. The findings indicate low awareness, with 45% unaware of climate change impacts, 42% unaware of improper water handling effects, 48% not recognizing open defecation risks, and 44–50% unaware of contamination from animal feces and sanitation facilities. Most respondents (78.7%) reported knowing how to use Aqua Tap systems, and groundwater was the preferred water source (53.3%). Education level was significantly associated with sanitation awareness (χ² = 18.64, p = 0.001), and residence type correlated with water source preference (r = 0.46, p = 0.004). Residential income significantly influenced sanitation practices (χ² = 15.8, p = 0.003), with 40% demonstrating good practices, more frequently among IDPs (26.7%) than host village residents (13.3%). Education, residence, and income influence sanitation, with illiterate and low-income groups showing poorer practices, emphasizing the need for targeted education and better WASH facilities.